Muhammed Hosni Mubarak

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Muhammed Hosni Mubarak (Arabic: محمد حسني مبارك, alternative spelling: Mohammed Husni Mubarak; May 4, 1928-) is Egypt's fourth president since the overthrow of the monarchy in 1952. He resigned on February 11, 2011, after mass protests demanding his dismissal erupted all over Egypt starting January 25, 2011.

He was born in the governorate of Minufiyya. He married Suzanne Mubarak around 1958 and has two sons: Alaa and Gamal Mubarak.
Hosni Mubarak (Source: NY Daily News)


Contents

Early Life, Education and Career

He graduated from Shibin al-Kum Secondary School then entered the Military Academy in 1947. He graduated two years later, then entered the Air Force Academy and graduated in 1950.[1] He taught at the Academy from 1952-1959, received training at a Russian base for two years, and became commandant of the Air Force Academy from 1969-1972 before becoming commander-in-chief of the Air Force.

The 1973 War

He was credited for the Air Force's performance in the October 1973 War against Israel, was awarded the three highest military medals and became Air Chief Marshal in 1974.[2] Later, especially after the 2011 Revolution, it was rumored that Mubarak did not play as big a role in the planning of the crucial air strikes of the War as was credited to him. Shahdan al-Shazli, daughter of Saʿd al-Din al-Shazli who is considered by many to be the true mastermind behind the air strike, claimed that Mubarak had been trying to erase her father from history and trying to take all the credit for the attack that dealt a fatal blow to Israeli defenses during the War.[3]

Accession to the Presidency

In 1975, Anwar Sadat appointed Mubarak as vice president of Egypt, and later of the National Democratic Party (NDP). On October 6, 1981, during a military parade celebrating Egypt's perceived victory in the October 6, 1973 War with Israel, Sadat was assassinated. Shortly thereafter, "Mubarak was approved overwhelmingly as president in a national referendum."[4] After Mubarak was removed from office in 2011, Ruqayya Sadat, Anwar Sadat's daughter, claimed that Mubarak played a role in her father's assassination. It was speculated that when Sadat was shot by the assailants, he was still alive even when he arrived at the hospital. But it was also rumored that while Sadat was still at the crime scene, some people sprayed an aerosol of some sort on his face. Ruqayya claims that Mubarak played a role in this, and her lawyer requested that Abbud Al-Zumur, one of the men implicated in the assault, testify.[5]


Thirty Years in Office

Mubarak came to power with the country under emergency law, and it continued to be so for the rest of his rule. Many of the people's rights were curbed, basic freedoms denied. According to BBC, "The government argued the draconian regime was necessary to combat Islamist terrorism, which came in waves during the decades of Mr Mubarak's rule - often targeting Egypt's lucrative tourism sector." Dissidence was widespread, and Mubarak survived six assassination attempts.[6] He introduced legal and constitutional reforms that extended and consolidated the regime's power. He allowed some opposition parties to form, but also authorized the arrests of those who seemed to become too popular or too outspoken. Mubarak's economic policies favored the growth of private businesses and direct foreign investments. In this way, Egypt has been a liberal economy since the 1990s. Under Mubarak, peace with Israel was kept, and damaged relations with other Arab nations were repaired. His government was US- and West-friendly, and he often "acted as a mediator in ongoing Israeli-Palestinian relations."[7]

Mubarak stayed in power for thirty years, making him the ruler with the longest tenure after Muhammad Ali Pasha. He supposedly won five consecutive presidential elections. One of the most controversial victories was that of 2005, after "Mubarak initiated constitutional amendments that paved the way for Egypt’s first multi-candidate election." Mubarak imprisoned his most prominent opponent Ayman Nur shortly before the presidential elections. Mubarak supposedly won with 88.6% of the vote, but many believe the elections were rigged.[8]


Continuing Sadat's Legacy?

By 1974, Sadat adopted Infitah or the Open Door Policy in which he tried to entice foreign and domestic investors into investing their money in Egypt's private sector, breaking away from Nasser's statism. He also sought to normalize Egypt's relations with Israel especially after having signed the Camp David Accords in 1978. It is claimed that since Sadat's rule, " Egypt has aligned its foreign policy with those of the United States and Israel and has restructured its economy" to become more liberal and friendlier towards private investors. Business ties with the US and the West increased as Egypt's business sector grew.[9]

Mubarak had often stated that he tried to follow in Sadat's footsteps. “I have learned a great deal from him,” he said. At Sadat's funeral, he "boldly stated, 'I declare that we will honor all international charters, treaties and commitments which Egypt has concluded. Our hands will not cease to push the wheel of peace in pursuance of the mission of a departed leader.”[10] Tareq al-Zumur, one of the men who took part in Sadat's assassination claimed that "The Hosni Mubarak regime never strayed one inch from the policies followed by Sadat," saying that even rigged elections were a pastime of Sadat.[11]

When he assumed power, "Egypt was isolated from Arab and Muslim countries," was kicked out of the Arab League and the League's headquarters were moved from Cairo to Tunis largely in protest against Sadat's peace with Israel. Mubarak tried to reestablish ties with the Arab world and managed to do so when he allied with former Iraqi President Saddam Hussein in the Iraq-Iran War that lasted from 1980 to 1988. Shortly thereafter in 1990, in a move spearheaded by Iraq and Yemen, the Arab League headquarters were moved back to Cairo. But with Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, "the Arab rapprochement was short-lived," as Egypt "joined the US-led international effort to drive Iraqi troops out of Kuwait."[12]


Establishing a Distinctive Regime

Although it may appear that Mubarak had tried to uphold many of Sadat's policies like keeping the peace with Israel and some domestic policies, Mubarak did seem to break away from his predecessor's agenda. He was more determined than Sadat to slowly dismantle Egypt's big public sector. Although Sadat is famous for Infitah, he did not really touch the public sector businesses that were set up in the Nasser Era. Another challenge that led to a change in policy was the wave of terrorism in the 1990s against Mubarak.

Islamist Opposition and Government Response

Mubarak constantly told the world that he and his government were "combatting terror" in Egypt. In fact, most of the $1.5 billion Egypt receives annually in aid from the US is said to be for "peace and security, a broad category that includes combating drug traffickers and terrorists as well as preventing the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction." Mubarak, who was then head of the country that was "fourth on the list of recipients for aid", claimed that the money was indeed "allocated for 'peace and security."[13]

As president he undoubtedly faced opposition from many Islamist groups. Nageh Ibrahim, "a leading member of al-Gamaʿa al-Islamiya (Islamic Group), which took up arms against Mubarak in the 1990s and lost," lamented Sadat's assassination saying that Sadat had a lot to offer the Islamist groups. Sadat had often used the Islamists as countermeasures against the leftists and Arab nationalists and thus did not crack down quite as harshly on the Islamists as Nasser, and later Mubarak, did. Nageh explained that "(After the assassination) many doors for missionary activity were closed, all the benefits went to the leftists and the whole Islamist movement was harmed. Sadat had stopped torture and abolished emergency law, but we young people didn't realise the value of those steps until after his death."[14]

The Muslim Brotherhood, which existed since 1928, was more moderate and attempted "to establish an Islamic political identity at grassroots level by non-violent means, inter alia by gaining control over the educational systems, professional organizations and trade unions, increasing the value and visibility of Islamic religious symbols among communities and by distributing pro-Islamic material"; but starting in the 1970s, several militant Islamist groups arose that called for a more Islamic Egypt, and "attempt[ed] to overthrow the government through a jihad."[15]

On June 26, 1995, Mubarak was in Addis Ababa, heading to a conference when fundamentalists began shooting at his motorcade. Mubarak's car immediately headed back to the airport, where he flew directly back to Egypt.[16] The Gamaʿa was accused and "after Mubarak's return to Cairo, the authorities cracked down on Islamist groups, imprisoning hundreds and leading human rights organisations to accuse the government of human rights violations."[17] Mubarak had to constantly deal with the militants, especially al-Gamaʿa al-Islamiya with whom he had a long standoff that ended around 1997, when the Gamaʿa finally yielded to the superior power of the state. He managed to survive five other assassination attempts in all, but none of the attempts was as close as the one in Addis Ababa.

On October 6, 2011, on the 30th anniversary of Sadat's assassination, Abbud Al-Zumur, one of the people implicated in the former president's assassination, was interviewed about various aspects of Sadat's and Mubarak's rule. He said that in many ways Mubarak was worse than Sadat, and under his rule, Egypt was moving backward.[18] In fact, he said that one of the things that he regretted after killing Sadat was being partially responsible for bringing about the much harsher rule of Mubarak. He claimed that "Sadat was more merciful" and that his "time was much better than Mubarak's time."[19]

Privatization

In 1991, Mubarak adopted the more neoliberal "Economic Reform and Structural Adjustment Program... at the urging of the IMF and World Bank," but the move came at a heavy price. Privatization of state enterprises accelerated, but social benefits were substantially cut. Workers could be "hired on temporary contracts that could be renewed at will by management," thus inhibiting the worker from participating in unions. Mass layoffs ensued. The Assiut Cement Company, for example, fired 77 percent of its workers. At many factories affected by the move to privatization, workers were "required to sign undated resignation letters as a condition of employment, allowing companies to swiftly and easily dismiss workers involved in union activities."

Inevitably, the effect of this move was "to concentrate ever more wealth in the hands of the few, while driving great numbers of people into poverty."[20] And Mubarak, of course, was blamed for this growing disparity.

Many of those who took to the streets in 2011 were protesting the wide range of power given to businessmen like steel tycoon Ahmed Ezz and the growing rich-poor divide. Mubarak's economic reforms were not populist, but elitist, in nature.

Toshka Project

One of the most noteworthy projects that the Mubarak government undertook was the Toshka project in Upper Egypt. When asked how he will resolve the social problems that lead people to become "radicals", Mubarak said, "Land reclamation of the desert must be pursued with the greatest urgency. The Toshka Project which has been begun in southern Egypt is the first step of a decades-long plan, which in the future will provide new living space for millions of Egyptians. We are currently going through a shift in Egypt's history, and I am devoting no less energy to this, than I am to combatting terrorism and solving the Mideast problem."

Most of Egypt's population is concentrated in a few cities. In an effort to spread people out, the Toshka Project, which began in 1997, involved creating "the basis for thousands of hectares of new agricultural land, and new towns for hundreds of thousands of people" by diverting Nile waters from the Toshka basin into the desert. Ultimately, the "goal is to reclaim some 1 million feddans (420,000 hectares) of land for farming, irrigated equally by groundwater and by canal-borne water from the Nile."[21]

Although the Mubarak Pumping Station, the "centerpiece of the Project", was hailed as "one of the five most outstanding civil engineering achievements of the year by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)" in 2005, it posed many challenges to those working and investing in it. Involved parties had to face problems like "coping with the extreme temperatures of the region to incorporating cost-effective earthquake protection." It is estimated that the Project will cost around $70 billion "and is intended to double the region's arable land, create 2.8 million new jobs and attract over 16 million people to the new towns planned."[22] Saudi Prince Al-Waleed Bin Talal, owner of the Kingdom Agricultural Development Company (KADC), is also owner of the Project and thus has exclusive privileges to the area when it is completed.[23][24]

Power Monopoly of the National Democratic Party

Under Mubarak's rule, the National Democratic Party (NDP) gained far-reaching and unprecedented powers. It became increasingly difficult for opposition parties to get into the People's Assembly. In fact, in 1984, a new Electoral law was passed that "limited opposition seats in the assembly to parties that obtained at least 8 percent of the vote, thereby eliminating representation on the part of some of the small fringe parties." Parties like the Nasserist Party was rejected on the grounds that it was totalitarian, and the MB was rejected for having a religious basis.[25]

Even elections were shady. One of the most notorious examples of electoral fraud is the 1995 parliamentary elections in which the NDP won 97% of the seats.[26] According to the constitution, the judiciary should monitor the elections fully, but in this election, civil servants also took part in supervising some polling stations. When this issue went to the constitutional court, the court deemed the elections and their results invalid.[27] Mubarak ultimately chose to ignore the ruling. Some 87 people died and around 1,500 people were wounded during these elections.[28]

To many Egyptians, the NDP symbolized the Mubarak regime's open use of nepotism and corruption. Many of Mubarak's cronies like former Minister of Information Safwat El Sherif, former Prime Minister Ahmad Nazif, Mubarak's son Gamal Mubarak, and steel tycoon Ahmed Ezz held important positions in the party. Since all of these figures managed to amass staggering amounts of wealth while in power, many have come to believe that their positions in the Party gave these people exclusive rights and pardons.

Some of the most noteworthy prime ministers in Mubarak's cabinet all belonged to the NDP: Atef Sidky, who remained PM for ten years before resigning in 1996; Kamal Ganzouri who was in office from 1996 to 1999;[29] Atef Ebeid who stayed in office for 5 years before resigning in 2004 and is now being tried on corruption charges;[30] and Ahmad Nazif who served as PM for 7 years before being overthrown with the rest of the Mubarak regime and is now on trial for corruption.[31]

The NDP which Sadat founded in 1978, was officially disbanded by the supreme administrative court in April 2011.[32]

Grooming Gamal

Before the 2011 Revolution, it was widely believed that Mubarak's non-military son would take over once his father stepped down or died. A graduate of the American University in Cairo, Gamal entered banking, worked for the Bank of America, and returned to Egypt to become General Secretariat of the (NDP) in 2000. He became "a very familiar face among the Egyptian business elite and Egyptians in general, and a regular guest participant at economic symposia." It has often been said that he acted "for some time as an advisor to his father on economic matters" and served as "the spokesman for the U.S.-Egyptian business advisory body", leading many to believe that he was being groomed for the presidency. Once Syrian President Bashar al-Assad took over after his father Hafiz al-Assad died in 1999, the rumors became even more serious.[33]

In a press conference held by Safwat El Sherif upon Gamal's selection as Secretary General in 2002, Safwat said that Gamal was "the beating heart of the party and the instrument for a new thinking." Mubarak said that "he sees the elevation of his son as an opportunity to give the young generation new responsibilities."[34]

People did not want to see Egypt turn into a monarchy, and thus one of the grievances listed by the revolutionaries was that they did not want Gamal for president. And surely enough, in one of the speeches Mubarak gave after the mass protests began, he assured people that his son would not run for president. It is also rumored that one reason why the military abandoned Mubarak after the 2011 uprisings may have been because its members were unhappy about the dynastic succession, especially since Gamal had no military background.


January 25, 2011 and Its Aftermath

Mass protests broke out starting January 25, 2011 in many Egyptian governorates, but most notably in Cairo, Alexandria and Suez. The uprising was mobilized by activists through social networking sites and was precipitated by the success of the Tunisian Revolution that overthrew the autocratic ruler Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali. Like Tunisians, Egyptians wanted to see an end to the repression, corruption and "lack of dignity accorded to them by the state."[35] On January 28, 2011, Mubarak made his first television appearance in which he asked his government to resign but did not seem to want to leave office himself. He kept reasserting that all he wants is to prevent chaos.

The next day, it was announced that Omar Suleiman, Egypt's military intelligence chief, would become vice president (a postion that remained vacant since Mubarak came to power in 1981) and Ahmad Shafiq would be prime minister. The military began to show up on the streets and, on January 31, announced that it would not fire on the protestors. Dialogue, for Egyptians, was out of the question until Mubarak resigns.

Mubarak told journalist Christiane Amanpour in an exclusive interview that he hated seeing "Egyptians fighting Egyptians."[36]

Mubarak made two more (to many, disappointing) appearances before February 11, 2011 when Omar Suleiman briefly announced that Mubarak was finally stepping down. Millions of Egyptians could be seen cheering and frantically waving their flags in streets throughout Egypt.[37]

Shortly after the Revolution, the government began recalling many of the history and educational books that praised Mubarak in order to alter them. One history book, for example, read: "The six principles of the July Revolution came to fruition during the reign of Mubarak. He broke the shackles that bound the people, broke their fear barriers and granted Egyptians the freedom and opportunity to change [anything that displeased them]. He did everything he could to bring about social justice, help the poor, and minimize the rich-poor divide." After the Revolution, the same editors and writers changed the paragraph to: "Mubarak's rule was a natural extension of the July 23 Revolution. The president tried to achieve social justice and develop [the country], but all attempts were met with failure, and none of the goals were achieved."[38]


His Trial

After the 18 days of mass protest, Hosni Mubarak finally stepped down. Six months later, "he was wheeled into a courtroom cage on a hospital bed to stand trial, charged with corruption and complicity in the killing of protestors." Mubarak and his two sons denied the charges completely. The trial was adjourned and reconvened for several months. The first session in early August 2011, was "watched live on television by tens of millions, served as a national catharsis for Egypt and electrified the Arab world with the image of an autocrat brought down for the first time by his own people to the standing of an ordinary criminal." It was the only session to be televised. Hundreds of witnesses were called upon, including some police officers. Nevertheless prosecutors called Field Marshal and temporary military ruler Hussein Tantawi and other members of the Supreme Military Council in late September 2011 to testify. No one knew what was being said, but it is commonly believed that Tantawi "failed to produce evidence one way or the other" which also led some to believe that "Mr. Mubarak’s former allies in the military are trying to acquit him of more serious charges." Further, many began speculating that the military leaders, by testifying against Mubarak, could "possibly incriminate themselves in decisions taken before the president was overthrown."[39]

Mubarak's sons were also put on trial for corruption charges. It was rumored that during the 18 days of protest, Mubarak began shifting "his vast wealth into untraceable accounts overseas." It was also rumored that he amassed £3 billion, some even say £40 billion, during his thirty-year rule. Egyptians demanded the money be returned and called on all countries where the Mubaraks invested to cooperate with the Egyptian government and freeze their assets.[40]

Early in October 2011, Mubarak, former minister of interior Habib Adly and former prime minister Ahmad Nazif were collectively fined 540 million Egyptian pounds (about $95 million) in reparations for economic damages caused by the shutting down of the internet and communication systems during the first few days of the Revolution.[41]

The trial was reconvened in late December 2011, after a three-month hiatus but was postponed. In early January 2012, when the trial resumed, the public prosecution office called for the death penalty for those who are implicated in the murders of the protesters, namely Hosni Mubarak and former minister of interior, Habib Adly.[42] "The president of the republic is responsible for protecting the people, and the question is not simply one of whether he ordered the killing of protesters, but to know why he did not intervene to stop the violence," said Chief prosecutor Mustafa Suleiman.[43] Although no verdict was reached and the trial was postponed yet again, the prosecutors and civil rights lawyers were reassured. Reportedly, some of them believed that the trial "gave them hope after they had thought that the trial was only an act" to appease the public.[44]

On June 2, 2012, Mubarak and Al-Adly were both sentenced to life in prison[45] for "not using their high political office to put a stop to the bloodshed." Profiteering and fraud charges were dismissed.[46] The court, however, "acquitted many officials more directly responsible for the police who killed the demonstrators", leading many to believe that the verdict was just for show.[47]


References

  1. ↑ Goldschmidt, Albert. Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt. (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 2000), 132
  2. ↑ Goldschmidt, Albert. Biographical Dictionary of Modern Egypt
  3. ↑ Khalid, Usama. "Ibnat al-Fariq Saʿd al-Din al-Shazli lil-Masy al-Youm: Mubarak Zawwar al-Tarikh.. Wa Wadaʿ Suratah Makan Walidi fi Ghurfat Amaliyyat October." Al-Masry al-Youm. February 26, 2011. http://www.almasry-alyoum.com/article2.aspx?ArticleID=288933&IssueID=2058 Accessed October 14, 2011
  4. ↑ "Hosni Mubarak" Carnegie Endowment. http://egyptelections.carnegieendowment.org/2010/09/09/profile-of-hosni-mubarak Accessed October 12, 2011
  5. ↑ Ayyad, Monica. "Talab Shahadat al-Zumur fi Itiham Mubarak bi-Qatl al-Sadat."Al-Wafd. October 8, 2011. http://www.alwafd.org/أخبار-وتقارير/13-الشارع%20السياسي/105859-طلب-شهادة-الزمر-في-اتهام-مبارك-بقتل-السادات Accessed October 12, 2011
  6. ↑ "Profile: Hosni Mubarak" BBC News. May 24, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12301713 Accessed October 11, 2011
  7. ↑ "Hosni Mubarak." Carnegie Endowment.
  8. ↑ "Hosni Mubarak." Carnegie Endowment
  9. ↑ Hassan, Bassem. "Egypt: The Continuing Legacy of the Mubarak-Sadat Regime." Al-Jazeera. June 8, 2011 http://www.aljazeera.net/mritems/streams/2011/6/8/1_1066868_1_51.pdf Accessed November 8, 2011
  10. ↑ Flurry, Stephen. "Hosni Mubarak Sealed His Fate in 1981." The Trumpet. February 4, 2011. http://www.thetrumpet.com/print.php?q=7940.6555.0.0 Accessed November 8, 2011
  11. ↑ Wright, Jonathan. "Analysis - Egypt revolution chips away at Sadat's legacy." Reuters. October 6, 2011. http://af.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idAFTRE7951VZ20111006?pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0&sp=true Accessed November 9, 2011
  12. ↑ "Profile: Hosni Mubarak." Al-Jazeera English. February 11, 2011. http://english.aljazeera.net/focus/2009/12/200912693048491779.html Accessed November 12, 2011
  13. ↑ Wingfield, Brian. "Making Sense Of U.S. Foreign Aid To Egypt And Elsewhere." Forbes. January 29, 2011. http://www.forbes.com/sites/brianwingfield/2011/01/29/making-sense-of-u-s-foreign-aid-to-egypt-and-elsewhere/ Accessed November 12, 2011
  14. ↑ Wright, Jonathan. "Analysis - Egypt revolution chips away at Sadat's legacy." Reuters.
  15. ↑ Swert, Geriie, Hussein Solomon and Anneli Bothhttp. "Egypt: Pharaohs and Fundamentalists?" Centre for International Political Studies. http://www.cips.up.ac.za/files/pdf/uafspublications/Egypt%2520Pharaohs%2520and%2520Fundamentalists.pdf (Pages 6-8)
  16. ↑ Sobelman, Daniel, "Gamal Mubarak, President of Egypt?" Middle East Quarterly 8.2 (2001), 31-40. http://www.meforum.org/27/gamal-mubarak-president-of-egypt Accessed September 25, 2011
  17. ↑ "Profile: Hosni Mubarak." Al-Jazeera English. February 11, 2011. http://english.aljazeera.net/focus/2009/12/200912693048491779.html Accessed November 12, 2011
  18. ↑ Samak, Dina. "Q&A: Aboud El-Zomor on Sadat, Mubarak and the future of Egypt." Ahram Online. October 6, 2011. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/23436/Egypt/Politics-/QA-Aboud-ElZomor-on-Sadat,-Mubarak-and-the-future-.aspx Accessed November 12, 2011
  19. ↑ Watson, Ivan and Mohamed Fadel Fahmy. "Sadat's unrepentant killer aims for political future." CNN April 11, 2011. http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/meast/04/14/egypt.sadat.killer/?hpt=C2 Accessed September 15, 2011
  20. ↑ Elich, Gregory. "Egypt, the American Way. Model of the Status Quo?" Global Research. March 22, 2011. http://www.globalresearch.ca/PrintArticle.php?articleId=23876 Accessed November 12, 2011
  21. ↑ Baker, Marcia Merry. "Mubarak: Toshka Project Opens Way Towards New Civilization In Egypt." The Executive Intelligence Review. December, 1997. http://american_almanac.tripod.com/toshka.htm Accessed November 12, 2011
  22. ↑ "Toshka Project - Mubarak Pumping Station." Water Technology.net. http://www.water-technology.net/projects/mubarak/ Accessed November 12, 2011
  23. ↑ Essam Eddin, Gamal. "A new deal on the Toshka project to be finalised." Al-Ahram Online. May 22, 2011 http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/3/12/12692/Business/Economy/A-new-deal-on-the-Toshka-project-to-be-finalised-.aspx Accessed November 12, 2011
  24. ↑ "Egypt: Work in Toshka Project Not to Be Suspended." All Africa.com. October 17, 2011. http://allafrica.com/stories/201110171472.html Accessed November 12, 2011
  25. ↑ "Egypt: Introduction." US Library of Congress. http://countrystudies.us/egypt/3.htm Accessed November 12, 2011
  26. ↑ "Egypt‘s Parliamentary Elections:An Assessment of the Results." The Estimate, 12.23 (November 17, 2000). http://www.theestimate.com/public/111700.html Accessed November 15, 2011
  27. ↑ Thabet, Hala G. "Between Democratisation and Autocracy." Africa Development, 31.3 (2006), p. 13. http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/2-thabet.pdf Accessed November 15, 2011
  28. ↑ "Egypt‘s Parliamentary Elections:An Assessment of the Results." The Estimate.
  29. ↑ "Kamal El Ganzoury El 3ashera Masa2an." Youtube. February 17, 2011. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FuxN0ymNTU Accessed November 14, 2011
  30. ↑ "Egypt begins trial of former prime minister Obeid." Reuters. October 17, 2011. http://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFJOE79G03I20111017 Accessed November 15, 2011
  31. ↑ "Egypt: Former PM Ahmed Nazif and ministers face trials." BBC News. April 17, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13110160 Accessed November 15, 2011
  32. ↑ "Egypt: Mubarak's former ruling party dissolved by court." BBC. April 16, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13105044 Accessed November 13, 2011
  33. ↑ Sobelman, Daniel, "Gamal Mubarak, President of Egypt?" Middle East Quarterly 8.2 (2001), 31-40. http://www.meforum.org/27/gamal-mubarak-president-of-egypt Accessed September 25, 2011
  34. ↑ Raphaeli, Nimrod. The Grooming of Gamal Husni Mubarak." UJA. http://www.jewishtoronto.com/page.aspx?id=44438 Accessed November 12, 2011
  35. ↑ "Hosni Mubarak." New York Times. September 26, 2011. http://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/people/m/hosni_mubarak/index.html Accessed October 13, 2011
  36. ↑ Amanpour, Christiane. "Mubarak: 'If I Resign Today There Will Be Chaos". ABC News. February 3, 2011. http://abcnews.go.com/International/egypt-abc-news-christiane-amanpour-exclusive-interview-president/story?id=12833673 Accessed October 12, 2011
  37. ↑ "Hosni Mubarak." New York Times.
  38. ↑ "Fi-Kitab Tarikh al-Thanawiyya al-Amma.. Mubarak baʿd al-Thawra (Badhal Muhawalat li-Tahqiq al-Adala al-Igtimaʿiyya.. Wa Ba'at bil-Fashal." Al-Shorouk. September 25, 2011. http://www.shorouknews.com/news/view.aspx?cdate=25092011&id=a6055a13-ac74-498d-a453-11503bf8edb4 Accessed October 13, 2011
  39. ↑ "Hosni Mubarak". New York times.
  40. ↑ Sherwell, Philip. "Egypt: Hosni Mubarak used last 18 days in power to secure his fortune." The Telegraph. February 12, 2011. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/egypt/8320912/Egypt-Hosni-Mubarak-used-last-18-days-in-power-to-secure-his-fortune.html Accessed October 13, 2011
  41. ↑ Asʿad, Muhammad. "Ta'gil Taʿn Mubarak wa Nazhif wa al-Adly ala Taghrimihim li-21 November." Al-Youm al-Sabiʿ . October 3, 2011. http://www.youm7.com/News.asp?NewsID=504881&SecID=65&IssueID=0 Accessed October 13, 2011
  42. ↑ "Bil-Video.. (Bawwabat al-Shorouk) Tarsud Aham Kawalis Muhakamat Mubarak al-Yum al-Khamis." Al-Shorouk. January 5, 2012. http://www.almogaz.com/politics/news/2012/01/5/141689 Accessed January 7, 2012
  43. ↑ "Prosecutors in Egypt have called for the death penalty for deposed dictator Hosni Mubarak." The Australian. January 6, 2012. http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/world/prosecutors-in-egypt-call-for-the-death-penalty-for-deposed-dictator-hosni-mubarak/story-e6frg6so-1226237909834 Accessed January 7, 2012
  44. ↑ "Bil-Video.. (Bawwabat al-Shorouk) Tarsud Aham Kawalis Muhakamat Mubarak al-Yum al-Khamis." Al-Shorouk. January 5, 2012
  45. ↑ "Mubarak put on artificial respiration five times since Tuesday: Official source". Ahram Online. June 6, 2012. http://english.ahram.org.eg/NewsContent/1/64/44043/Egypt/Politics-/Mubarak-put-on-artificial-respiration-five-times-s.aspx Accessed June 25, 2012
  46. ↑ Shenker, Jack. "Hosni Mubarak's sentence greeted with initial euphoria, then anger". The Guardian. June 2, 2012. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/jun/02/hosni-mubarak-sentence-euphoria-anger Accessed June 25, 2012
  47. ↑ Kirkpatrick, David D. "Hosni Mubarak gets life in prison". New York Times. June 3, 2012. http://bostonglobe.com/news/world/2012/06/02/hosni-mubarak-gets-life-prison-for-his-role-egypt-killings/0E08OKwJqCsNnpgPe63f2J/story.html Accessed June 25, 2012


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